Table of Contents

• Coverage
• Dataset Description
  • Methods & Sampling
  • Data Processing Description
  • BCO-DMO Processing Description
  • Problem Description
• Data Files
• Related Publications
• Related Datasets
• Parameters
• Instruments
• Project Information
• Program Information
• Funding

Composite samples of bulk rainwater were collected atop the 23 meter height sampling tower at Tudor Hill, Bermuda (https://bios.asu.edu/tudorhill/facility-description), on an approximately weekly basis from November 2018 through March 2020, bracketing the four BAIT project cruises. Rainwater samples were collected in acid-cleaned 2-Liter wide-mouth fluorinated high-density polyethylene bottles (Nalgene) using an automatic rain sampler (N-Con Systems ADS 00-120); rain samples were subsequently acidified to 0.4% (v/v) with 6 M ultrapure hydrochloric acid (Fisher Optima) in the collection bottles, and then after two months the acidified, unfiltered samples were transferred into acid-cleaned 125 mL low-density polyethylene bottles (Nalgene) for analysis of "total-dissolvable Al" (TDAl; Tian et al. 2008). Field blanks for the rainwater (125 mL ultrapure deionized water) were deployed on the Tudor Hill tower and processed in the same manner as samples, but without opening the rain sampler.

Aluminum concentrations in the acidified rainwater were determined by inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, Thermo Fisher Scientific ElementXR) without preconcentration, using calibration standards prepared in 0.4% ultrapure hydrochloric acid (Fisher Optima) and yttrium as an internal standard. The field blank value for rainwater was 0.015 µmol TDAl, which equates to a concentration of 0.15 µmol L^-1TDAl for a typical rain sample volume of 100 mL. The limit of detection for aluminum in blank-corrected rain samples was estimated as 0.90 nmol per sample, from three times the standard deviation on the mean of replicate analyses of the single field blank (in the absence of a replicate field blank for rain). In the absence of duplicate samples for rainwater, we assume an overall uncertainty on TDAl concentrations of less than ±10% (one-sigma), based on duplicate, separate-day analyses of rain samples by ICP-MS.

Inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer instrumental data were collected using ElementXR processing software (Thermo Fisher Scientific).
Post-analysis calculations were performed using Microsoft Excel

- Imported data from source file "BAIT_Rain_Al_Data_9Feb25.xlsx" into the BCO-DMO data system. Data file imported using missing data identifier "ND"
- Replaced spaces and dashes with underscores in parameter (column) names
- Converted datetimes from local time (Atlantic/Bermuda Time) to ISO8601 format in UTC/GMT time zone
- Added latitude and longitude coordinates of Tudor Hill sampling tower

NSF and NERC Award Abstract:
Iron is an essential nutrient for the growth of phytoplankton in the oceans. As such, iron plays key roles in regulating marine primary production and the cycling of carbon. It is thus important that models of ocean biology and chemistry consider iron, in order to explore past, present and future variations in marine productivity and the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle. In this joint project involving researchers in the U.S. and the U.K., supported by both NSF and the Natural Environment Research Council (U.K.), field data from the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) region will be combined with an established, state-of-the-art ocean biogeochemical model. By leveraging the known seasonal-scale physical, chemical and biological changes in the BATS region, the oceanographic context provided by the BATS core data, and an existing model of the regional physical circulation, the proposed study will yield process-related information that is of general applicability to the open ocean. In particular, the proposed research will focus on understanding the atmospheric input, biological uptake, regeneration and scavenging removal of dissolved iron in the oceanic water column, which have emerged as major uncertainties in the ocean iron cycle. The project will include significant educational and training contributions at the K-12, undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral levels, as well as public outreach efforts that aim to explain the research and its importance.

The ability of ocean models to simulate iron remains crude, owing to an insufficient understanding of the mechanisms that drive variability in dissolved iron, particularly the involvement of iron-binding ligands, colloids and particles in the surface input, biological uptake, regeneration and scavenging of dissolved iron in the upper ocean. Basin-scale data produced by the GEOTRACES program provide an important resource for testing and improving models and, by extension, our mechanistic understanding of the ocean iron cycle. However such data provide only quasi-synoptic 'snapshots', which limits their utility in isolating and identifying the processes that control dissolved iron in the upper ocean. The proposed research aims to provide mechanistic insight into these governing processes by combining time-series data from the BATS region with numerical modeling experiments. Specifically, seasonally resolved data on the vertical (upper 2,000 meters) and lateral (tens of kilometers) distributions of particulate, dissolved, colloidal, soluble and ligand-bound iron species will be obtained from the chemical analysis of water column samples collected during five cruises, spanning a full annual cycle, shared with the monthly BATS program cruises. These data, along with ancillary data from the BATS program, will be used to test and inform numerical modeling experiments, and thus derive an improved understanding of the mechanisms that control the distribution and dynamics of dissolved iron in the oceanic water column.

This award reflects NSF's statutory mission and has been deemed worthy of support through evaluation using the Foundation's intellectual merit and broader impacts review criteria.

This is a project jointly funded by the National Science Foundation’s Directorate for Geosciences (NSF/GEO) and the National Environment Research Council (NERC) of the United Kingdom (UK). 

GEOTRACES is a SCOR sponsored program; and funding for program infrastructure development is provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation.

GEOTRACES gained momentum following a special symposium, S02: Biogeochemical cycling of trace elements and isotopes in the ocean and applications to constrain contemporary marine processes (GEOSECS II), at a 2003 Goldschmidt meeting convened in Japan. The GEOSECS II acronym referred to the Geochemical Ocean Section Studies To determine full water column distributions of selected trace elements and isotopes, including their concentration, chemical speciation, and physical form, along a sufficient number of sections in each ocean basin to establish the principal relationships between these distributions and with more traditional hydrographic parameters;

* To evaluate the sources, sinks, and internal cycling of these species and thereby characterize more completely the physical, chemical and biological processes regulating their distributions, and the sensitivity of these processes to global change; and

* To understand the processes that control the concentrations of geochemical species used for proxies of the past environment, both in the water column and in the substrates that reflect the water column.

GEOTRACES will be global in scope, consisting of ocean sections complemented by regional process studies. Sections and process studies will combine fieldwork, laboratory experiments and modelling. Beyond realizing the scientific objectives identified above, a natural outcome of this work will be to build a community of marine scientists who understand the processes regulating trace element cycles sufficiently well to exploit this knowledge reliably in future interdisciplinary studies.

Expand "Projects" below for information about and data resulting from individual US GEOTRACES research projects.